By Jonathan J. Kalmakoff
During World War I, most Doukhobors in Canada opposed military service based on their religious pacifist convictions. However, a small minority – estimated at three percent of all Doukhobors of military age – discarded their religious and philosophical objections to war and, for a variety of personal reasons, entered military service. The following article examines the Doukhobors who enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Forces between 1914 and 1918.
Background
Following the outbreak of the First World War, the overwhelming majority of Doukhobors in Canada opposed the conflict based on their religious pacifist convictions and sought exemption from military service obligations by virtue of Order-in-Council P.C. 2747 of December 6, 1898, granted to them by the Dominion of Canada upon their arrival from Russia.[1]
Petitions and delegations sent to Ottawa on behalf of the two main Doukhobor organizations of the time, the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood (approx. 7,000 members) and the Society of Independent Doukhobors of Canada (approx. 5,000 members), were met with repeated reassurances from government authorities that their exemption status as conscientious objectors would be honoured during the war.[2]
However, despite these efforts at the group level, a number of Doukhobor individuals still participated in the conflict. Of an estimated 2,000 Doukhobor men in Canada of military age at the time,[3] at least 63 Doukhobors[4] (and reputedly as many as 90[5]) voluntarily enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Forces between August 1914 and August 1917.
Their reasons for doing so were varied and complex.
Reasons for Enlistment
All of the enlistees, without exception, were Independent Doukhobors. These Doukhobors were more socially integrated than their communal brethren, having accepted naturalization, public education, private ownership and other tenets of Canadian citizenship; this presumably fostered a stronger attachment to, and sympathy towards, their adopted country that enabled some to cast aside their religious and philosophical objections to military service and participate in the war effort.
Some were undoubtedly swept up in the nationwide outpouring of patriotic fervor, reinforced by huge flag-waving crowds, public meetings, advertisements, posters and other campaigns aimed at encouraging voluntary enlistment. Others may have succumbed to the considerable social and peer pressure to enlist that replaced the early enthusiasm.
Still others may have enlisted for economic reasons. Almost half of the Doukhobor enlistees – 27 men in total – belonged to the proletariat of landless farm workers and laborers. Unemployment had been exceptionally high in Western Canada in 1914-1915, and many of these young men may have enlisted out of desperation, since the Canadian Expeditionary Forces paid $1.00 per day to all privates and an additional $0.10 per day for service overseas.
Finally, over a third of the Doukhobor enlistees – 22 men in total – were members of the ‘Small’ or ‘Middle’ parties of Doukhobors who had only recently arrived in Canada in 1909-1914,[6] and whose pacifist convictions were weak or non-existent compared to their brethren – members of the ‘Large’ party of Doukhobors who arrived earlier in 1899.
Interestingly, two Independent Doukhobors – Michael Holoboff of Canora, SK and Demitri Kolesnikoff of Thrums, BC – were forcibly conscripted into the Canadian Expeditionary Force following the enactment of The Military Service Act by the Dominion of Canada on August 28, 1917.[7] For whatever reason, these men were either unable to rely on the exemption from military service granted to their brethren, or government authorities were unwilling to apply it towards them, even though both listed their religion as “Doukhobor” on their attestation forms.
Military Medals
At least two Doukhobors were awarded medals for having distinguished themselves in service. In August 1918, James Holoboff of Canora, SK won the Military Medal for bravery after leading a bombing party in France through cellars and capturing fourteen enemy prisoners in one cellar, which was connected by telephone, and contained maps and a store of bombs and small arms ammunition.[8] Also in August 1918, Kuzma Mahortoff of Swan River, MB was awarded a medal for good conduct during his service in France.[9]
Conflicted Soldiers
In all likelihood, some of the Doukhobors who enlisted during the First World War were conflicted with guilt and remorse for having abandoned their pacifist principles. Evidence of this can be found in a number of cases.
At least three Doukhobor enlistees – William Strelioff and Bill Stushnoff of Kamsack, SK and John Holoboff of Langham, SK – misspelled or deliberately distorted their names in their attestation papers (as “Stretoolekoff”, “Sturnoshoff”, and “Boloboff” respectively), presumably to spare themselves and their families embarrassment and unwanted attention.[10] Similarly, Frederick Postnikoff of Blaine Lake enlisted under the alias “Loveroff”, a family nickname.[11]
Others, such as Alex Antifaev of Arran, SK and Peter Gritchin of Kamsack, SK, deserted soon after enlisting, before their units had left for overseas; both men were arrested, sent to clearing depots and subsequently discharged.[12] Similarly, Samuel Karaloff of Blaine Lake, SK was charged with being “illegally absent” from his training unit, tried by a court of inquiry and discharged.[13]
Three Doukhobor enlistees were court-martialed while serving overseas: John Zmaeff of Swan River, MB for “disobeying lawful orders from a superior officer” and “acting to the prejudice of good order and military discipline” in 1917;[14] Fred Sherstabetaff of Blaine Lake, SK for “leading and taking part in a mutiny or refusing to report soldiers planning to mutiny” and “striking or threatening a superior officer” in 1919;[15] and John Nevacshonoff of Thrums, BC for being “absent without leave” in 1918.[16]
Perhaps most curiously, two Doukhobor enlistees – John Holokoff of Veregin, SK and William Strelioff of Kamsack, SK – appear to have convinced military officials, while serving overseas, that they were actually Austrian nationals and were summarily discharged as “Alien Enemies” on that basis.[17]
Casualties
If enlistment in the Canadian Expeditionary Forces took an emotional toll on some Doukhobor enlistees, it claimed a physical one as well.
Eight Doukhobor men were discharged as “medically unfit” after being injured, falling ill or suffering shell shock while serving. These included: Fred Isavoloff of Buchanan, SK; Coozma Diakoff, Samuel Kolesnikov and Mike Konkin of Kamsack, SK; Alex Lakten and Nick Yachenkoff of Veregin, SK; Simeon Postnekoff of Blaine Lake, SK; and Alex Antifaev of Arran, SK, the latter having succumbed to his wounds soon after discharge.[18]
Finally, there was at least two Doukhobors killed in action. Walter Storgeoff of Kamsack, SK died in 1917 at age 21 of injuries sustained while serving in the 46th Battalion (Saskatchewan Regiment) of the Canadian Infantry; he is buried at Villers Station Cemetery northwest of Villers-au-Bois, France. William Gleboff of Kamsack, SK died in 1918 at age 22 of wounds suffered while serving in the 8th Battalion (Manitoba Regiment) of the Canadian Infantry; he is buried at Ligny-Saint-Flochel British cemetery west of Arras, France.
The Soldiers
The following list identifies the surname, name, address, date of birth, enlistment date and regiment number of 63 Doukhobors who enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Forces during the First World War.
| Surname | Name | Address | Birth Date | Enlistment Date | Regiment |
| Antifaev | Alex | Arran, SK | 1873 | 10/01/16 | 888036 |
| Astoforoff | John | – | – | – | 888082 |
| Barabanoff | Anton | Petrofka, SK | 06/1889 | 10/05/16 | 887957 |
| Bedinoff | Fred | Kamsack, SK | 04/1892 | 22/02/16 | 888055 |
| Bolanoff | Sam | – | – | – | 3348466 |
| Boloboff aka Holoboff | John | Langham, SK | – | – | – |
| Danshin | George | Canora, SK | 25/03/1886 | 04/03/16 | 267269 |
| Degarvoosoff | Nick | – | – | – | 888038 |
| Derhousoff | Nick | Canora, SK | 14/12/1897 | 18/03/16 | 888094 |
| Diakoff | Coozma | Kamsack, SK | 01/01/1877 | 27/12/15 | 888030 |
| Dootoff | Mike | Veregin, SK | 25/03/1897 | 10/04/16 | 267756 |
| Gloeboff | William | Kamsack, SK | 10/03/1896 | 16/07/17 | 2147550 |
| Gaulieff | Phillip | Petrofka, SK | 12/11/1881 | 28/04/16 | 294322 |
| Gretchin | Peter | Kamsack, SK | 1898 | 17/02/16 | 888056 |
| Gritchin | Peter | Kamsack, SK | 1898 | 17/02/16 | 888056 |
| Holoboff | James | Canora, SK | 01/11/1895 | 17/12/15 | 887366 |
| Holoboff | Michael F. | Canora, SK | 08/12/1895 | 18/05/18 | 260990 |
| Holodilin | Fred | – | – | – | 888032 |
| Holokoff | John | Veregin, SK | 10/01/1898 | 13/03/16 | 888078 |
| Horkoff | Steven | Devils Lake, SK | 05/08/1891 | 02/08/15 | 104286 |
| Isavoloff | Fred | Buchanan, SK | 24/05/1890 | 13/03/16 | 267371 |
| Katilnikoff | William J. | – | – | – | 268722 |
| Karaloff | John | Edmonton, AB | 26/05/1893 | 26/02/16 | 904284 |
| Karaloff | Samuel S. | Blaine Lake, SK | 18/05/1897 | 25/05/16 | 1018444 |
| Kazakoff | Nick | Kamsack, SK | 24/04/1888 | 11/01/16 | 888039 |
| Kolesnikoff | Demitri | Thrums, BC | 1881 | 11/11/17 | 4100943 |
| Kolesnikov | John | Kamsack, SK | 1886 | 13/03/16 | 888079 |
| Kolesnikov | Samuel | Kamsack, SK | 22/01/1885 | 13/03/16 | 888080 |
| Konkin | Mike | Kamsack, SK | 1898 | 18/11/16 | 913763 |
| Konkin | Peter | Petrofka, SK | 22/06/1884 | 10/06/16 | 913536 |
| Lakten | Alex | Veregin, SK | 1891 | 21/02/16 | 888059 |
| Loveroff aka Postnikoff | Frederick N. | Toronto, ON | 08/06/1895 | 11/06/14 | 349786 |
| Mahortoff | Kusma | Benito, MA | 02/04/1880 | 08/01/16 | 1000344 |
| Maloff | John | Kamsack, SK | 1888 | 27/03/16 | 888523 |
| Markin | Andrew | Kamsack, SK | 10/11/1896 | 27/03/16 | 888088 |
| Markin | William | Winnipeg, MB | 08/06/1896 | 07/12/16 | 1072141 |
| Namonchen | John | Langham, SK | 1893 | 15/06/16 | 255863 |
| Nevacshonoff | John | Thrums, BC | 06/01/1895 | 24/06/16 | 1018518 |
| Ostoforoff | George | Buchanan, SK | 12/07/1885 | 18/09/18 | 3091494 |
| Popoff | Bill | Kamsack, SK | 20/01/1897 | 23/05/16 | 888090 |
| Popoff | Fred | Kamsack, SK | 1893 | 18/12/16 | 888019 |
| Posnikoff | James | Arran, SK | 1894 | 11/12/15 | 887358 |
| Posnikoff | James | Arran, SK | 1894 | 04/11/16 | 1084059 |
| Posnikoff | William | Canora, SK | 30/09/1896 | 21/11/16 | 1084247 |
| Postnekoff | Simeon | Blaine Lake, SK | 19/02/1871 | 01/06/16 | 1018450 |
| Postnikoff | John | – | – | – | 1288989 |
| Potatoff | Mike | Whitebeech, SK | 1888 | 31/05/16 | 922526 |
| Reiben | Larion | Benito, MB | 1893 | 18/12/15 | 888020 |
| Reibin | Nicoli | Benito, MBA | 01/06/1891 | 29/12/15 | 888033 |
| Sherstabetaff | Fred | Blaine Lake, SK | 01/05/1895 | 02/07/16 | 1018617 |
| Storshoff | Henry | Kamsack, SK | 1896 | 18/02/16 | 888062 |
| Storshoff | Walter | Kamsack, SK | 1896 | 10/01/16 | 888048 |
| Strelioff | Peter | Canora, SK | 31/05/1900 | 10/02/16 | 887433 |
| Stretoolekoff aka Strelieff | William | Kamsack, SK | 1898 | 23/03/16 | 888089 |
| Sturnoshoff aka Stushnoff | Bill | Kamsack, SK | 05/1898 | 01/06/16 | 888526 |
| Velasoff | George | – | – | – | 888093 |
| Voikin | Nick | Petrofka, SK | 14/12/1898 | 25/03/16 | 886517 |
| Voikin | Nicoli | Arran, SK | 09/11/1894 | 21/01/16 | 888046 |
| Wlosove | George | Kamsack, SK | 01/04/1894 | 18/03/16 | 888093 |
| Wlosove | George N. | Runnymede, SK | 21/02/1898 | 16/05/16 | 888520 |
| Yachenkoff | Nick | Veregin, SK | 04/09/1897 | 09/03/16 | 267332 |
| Yaretza aka Yuritsin | Nicoli | Arran, SK | 10/03/1886 | 09/02/16 | 888063 |
| Zmaeff | John | Swan River, MB | 07/02/1896 | 07/02/16 | 1000659 |
After Word
The information contained in this article was previously incorporated by permission in Greg Nesteroff, “Doukhobors and WWI” published in Castlegar News, December 4, 2014.
End Notes
[1] Order-in-Council No. 1898-2747, Exempting from military service the Doukhobors, settling permanently in Canada, upon production of certificate of membership – Min. Interior [Minister of the Interior] 1898/11/30, Library and Archives Canada Item No. 165476.
[2] Koozma J. Tarasoff, Plakun Trava (Grand Forks: MIR Publication Society, 1982) at 127, 177-178.
[3] This rough, conservative estimate presumes a Doukhobor population in Canada in 1914 of 12,000; of whom half were male; and of the males, at least one-third (2,000) of whom were of military (18-45) age.
[4] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box Nos. 198 – 6, 278 – 12, 415 – 54, 854 – 48, 583 – 55, 2291 – 7, 2409 – 12, 2455 – 44, 2500 – 43, 2601 – 59, 3588 – 47, 3445 – 21, 3819 – 43, 3852 – 17, 4466 – 27, 4466 – 28, 4466 – 30, 4466 – 36, 4497 – 64, 4724 – 64, 5005 – 47, 5002 – 26, 5002 – 27, 5012 – 23, 5246 – 40, 5246 – 43, 5246 – 44, 5247 – 58, 5247 – 59, 5322 – 18, 5761 – 15, 5843 – 29, 5876 – 40, 5926 – 10, 5926 – 12, 7231 – 54, 7279 – 3, 7502 – 55, 7903 – 48, 7903 – 49, 7918 – 4, 7918 – 5, 7918 – 6, 7919 – 54, 7919 – 55, 7920 – 9, 8151 – 30, 8151 – 33, 8860 – 39, 9365 – 5, 9365 – 6, 9381 – 45, 9382 – 7, 9404 – 48, 9925 – 52, 9965 – 32, 9965 – 33, 10516 – 17, 10516 – 18, 10625 – 32, 10627 – 42, 10681 – 61. See also J. Kalmakoff, Doukhobors in the WWI Canadian Expeditionary Forces, 1914-1918, (February 3, 2005) https://www.doukhobor.org/WWI-Soldiers.pdf.
[5] On March 3, 1916, the Ottawa Journal reported that “Ninety Doukhobors of the Yorkton district have enlisted in the Eastern Saskatchewan regiment. These Doukhobors came to this country from Russia to escape, among other things, military service. They state that this is a war for liberty, and they feel it is their duty to assist in the battle for it.” The article was republished in a number of newspapers, including: Kingston Whig Standard, March 6, 1916; Nelson Daily News, March 10, 1916; Grand Forks Gazette, March 18, 1916; Shellbrook Chronicle, April 15, 1916; The Windsor Star, April 24, 1917. However, this number has not been verified.
[6] Steve Lapshinoff & Jonathan Kalmakoff, Doukhobor Ship Passenger Lists, 1898-1928 (Crescent Valley: self-published, 2001).
[7] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box Nos. 4466 – 28 and 5246 – 40.
[8] Regina Leader Post, August 23 and 30, 1919; Saskatoon Daily Star, August 26, 1919; Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box No. 4466 – 27.
[9] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box No. Box 5843 – 29.
[10] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box Nos. 9382 – 7 and 9404 – 48; Saskatoon Daily Star, December 3, 1918.
[11] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box No. 5761 – 15.
[12] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box Nos. 198 – 6, 3819 – 43 and 3852 – 17.
[13] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box No. 5002 – 27.
[14] Courts Martial of First World War, Library and Archives Canada, RG150 – Ministry of the Overseas Military Forces of Canada, Series 8, File 649-Z-139, Microfilm Reel Number T-8690.
[15] Courts Martial of First World War, Library and Archives Canada, RG150 – Ministry of the Overseas Military Forces of Canada, Series 8, File 240-S-48, Microfilm Reel Number T-8691.
[16] Courts Martial of First World War, Library and Archives Canada, RG150 – Ministry of the Overseas Military Forces of Canada, Series 8, File 649-M-53107, Microfilm Reel Number T-8681.
[17] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box Nos. 4466 – 36 and 9382 – 7.
[18] Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), Library and Archives Canada, RG 150, Accession 1992-93/166, Box Nos. 4724 – 64, 2500 – 43, 5246 – 44, 5247 – 58, 5322 – 18, 10625 – 32, 7919 – 54 and 198 – 6.